Aristotle [ca. 350 BCE] (De animalibus Book 6, 5; 9, 23.2): [Book 6, 5] The vulture builds its nest in inaccessible rocks, wherefore its nest and young ones are rarely seen. For this reason Herodotus, the father of Bryson the sophist, says that vultures come from another part of the earth, which is invisible to us, giving as a reason for his opinion, that they are seen in great numbers suddenly following the path of an army. But difficult as it is to observe them, their nests have been seen. The vulture produces two eggs. [Book 9, 23.2] ...for when the eagle turns out its young, the phene [fene, bearded vulture] takes them up and feeds them; for the eagle ejects them before the proper time, when they still require feeding, and are unable to fly.- [Cresswell translation, 1887]

Pliny the Elder [1st century CE] (Natural History, Book 10, 7; 10, 54; 29, 24): [Book 10, 7] Of vultures the black are the strongest. No one has ever reached their nests, and consequently there have actually been persons who have thought that they fly here from the opposite side of the globe. This is a mistake: they make their nests on extremely lofty crags. Their chicks indeed are often seen, usually in pairs. The most learned augur of our age, Umbricius, states that they lay thirteen eggs, but use one of them for cleaning the remaining eggs and the nest and then throw it away; but that three days before they lay the eggs they fly to some place where there will be dead bodies. [Book 10, 54 ] Vultures and the heavier birds in general cannot fly upward except after a run forward or when launching from a higher eminence; they steer with their tail. [Book 29, 24 ] Of birds, the chief protection against serpents is the vulture, and it has been noticed that there is less power in the black vulture. They say that the fumes of their burning feathers chase serpents away, and that those who carry about them a vulture's heart are protected not only from the attacks of serpents, but also from those of wild beasts, bandits, and angry potentates. - [Rackham translation]

Aelianus [170-230 CE] (On the Characteristics of Animals, Book 1, 45-46): [Book 1, 45] If a man burn the feathers of a vulture (so I am told), he will have no difficulty in inducing snakes to quit their dens and lurking-places. [Book 2, 46] The Vulture is the dead body's enemy. At any rate it swoops upon it as though it were an adversary and devours it, and watches a man who is in the throes of death. Vultures even follow in the wake of armies in foreign parts, knowing by prophetic instinct that they are marching to war and that every battle provides corpses, as they have discovered. It is said that no male vulture is ever born: all vultures are female. And the birds knowing this and fearing to be left childless, take measures to produce them as follows. They fly against the south wind. If however the wind is not from the south, they open their beaks to the east wind, and the inrush of air impregnates them, and their period of gestation lasts for three years. But the vulture is said never to make a nest. ... But I have been informed that vultures do not lay eggs, but that in their birth-pangs they produce chicks, and that these are feathered from birth I have also heard. - [Scholfield translation]

Saint Ambrose [4th century CE] (Hexameron, Book 5, 20.64): It is said that vultures 'do not indulge in conjugal embraces' or in any sort of union or nuptial tie. They are said to conceive without contact with the male seed and that without the union of sexes they generate offspring that live to a ripe old age. In fact, it is asserted that they live as long as a hundred years and that by no means is that the limit of a natural span of life await them. [Chapter 23.81] Why are vultures able by certain indications to foretell a man's death? Whence have they derived their knowledge? When two armies face each other in battle array to engage in tearful war, these particular birds follow in formation as a sign that a great number of men are destined to fall a prey to vultures.- [Savage translation, 1961]

Isidore of Seville [7th century CE] (Etymologies, Book 12, 7:12): The vulture [vultur] is thought to be named from its 'slow flight' [volatus tardus], for indeed it does not have a swift flight, due to the size of its body. They say that some vultures do not unite in coition, but conceive and reproduce without copulation, and their offspring live to be almost one hundred years old.Vultures, just like eagles, can sense carrion even beyond the seas; indeed, when they are flying high, they can see many things from their height that are otherwise hidden by obscuring mountains. - [Barney, Lewis, et. al. translation]

Alexander Neckam [1157-1217 CE] (De naturis rerum, Book 1.41): The vulture feeds on the corpse of a stranger and has a body of great size, yet it is not known to be hostile to small birds. But rather when it sees the hawk pursuing small birds, the vulture cuts off the hawk's wings, tears it with its beak, and endeavors with all its weight to help those in peril. Yet men cannot spare men. From this we learn that the lowly must be spared, and the proud must be resisted. - [Wright/Badke]

Thomas of Cantimpré [circa 1200-1272 CE] (Liber de natura rerum, Birds 5.11, 5.120): [Thomas describes the vulture under the names hamraham and vulture.] [Birds 5.11] Hamraham is a bird of the East, as Aristotle says, which nests on mountains where man cannot climb; and therefore its nest is not to be found, and its chicks are very rare. For the chicks do not descend to the lowlands unless they are robust in all respects and resemble their mother. And for this reason Arothinius the sophist takes up the argument, saying that the hamraham came from another remote country, because no one had ever seen its young. Shame on the pitiful hypocrite, who, if he has done something good, makes a show of it and boasts of praise from men and in the present receives his reward. Here birds follow armies because of corpses: for they live on flesh; nor do they make but two eggs. [Birds 5.120] The vulture is a large and heavy bird, as Isidore says, but very ready to fly, although before it is lifted from the ground it takes three leaps into the air to fly. It happens that sometimes it is intercepted by the agility of a dog, before it is raised in the high air by the usual leaps to fly. As Pliny says, if vulture feathers are placed in the fire, thee smoke drives away serpents. The heart of the vulture, when carried, provides safety from the attack of wild beasts, serpents, and creeping things. Vultures, like eagles, sense corpses beyond the sea; and by flying higher, sense corpses that are are hidden by the darkness of the mountains, and can see them from that height. It looks for the smelling corpse while flying. Isidore: But first it casts its eye on the corpse. It follows the army to fill itself with the corpses of the dead. The vulture, after it had grown up and saw its mother, old and infirm, about to fly, killed her and perished. As Pliny says, no one has seen the vulture's nests: therefore there were those who falsely thought that they flew from the opposite end of world; for they nest in the highest rocks. But if by any chance some bird, which is even stronger, wants to snatch her chicks, she exposes herself to danger: she strikes with her wings, she wounds with her claws. And she feeds her young as long as they cannot fly, and this until the winter when the snow falls. Then the mother, driving them from the nest, forbids them to approach the places in which they were born, that is, for the sake of food, since one pair of vultures requires much space. But they do not hunt in places near the nest, but in very remote places; and this the nature of peace taught them, lest they should stir up the hatred of the neighboring nations against themselves. When it hunts something, it does not immediately carry the prey, but first tries the weight, and having tested, carries the prey. Ambrose: Some say that vultures do not have intercourse, and conjugal intercourse with a certain custom, because nuptial copulation is mixed with filth, and thus they conceive without any male seed, and to beget without union, and those born of these proceed far and wide to a great age; so that their lives may be extended with a life of up to a hundred years, and the narrow end of life may not easily receive them. As Ambrose says, vultures are accustomed to announce the death of men by certain signs. For by a certain instruction and by a certain instinct, when the ranks of men set to war against each other, the vultures follow the train long beforehand, signifying by this that a multitude of men will fall prey to the vultures in the future war. Which of course they seem to infer by a certain reason from the nature of human instruction. Pliny: The vulture hunts from noon until night, and it ceases from the time of sunrise until noon. When it grows old, its forehead elongates at the top, so that it reaches the lower lip with a curve; and so it happens that, unable to open its mouth, it dies of hunger and starvation. For neither does it strike its beak against a rock like an eagle, nor does it know how to shake off a disadvantage; and therefore it dies. As long as this bird does not see a man, it gladly walks on the ground, and this on account of the weight of its body, whence it is called by some the gradipes. Some have said that the vulture will swallow its own brain when it is about to die, because it is jealous that it may not be useful to humans, for it is said to be effective against paralysis. Experimentator: The vulture is slow; for a bird of great flesh cannot fly quickly. If it sees that its chicks are easily affected, it is in pain. Therefore it wounds them in the feet with its beak, so as to make them emaciated. As the vulture flies, if it sees a corpse, it lays itself down to eat the corpse, and because it inclines indifferently to every corpse, it does not avoid dangers and snares, and thus falls more easily into the hands of hunters. The vulture fights with herons and rushes at them. But since the heron is agile, it gets away from the rushing attack, but the pregnant birds are unable to escape and it kills them. It also fights with parrots and other birds. What is left over from its food, it stores in the nest so that it can feed itself and the chicks from there, since it does not get food easily. - [Badke translation/paraphrase]

Albertus Magnus [ca. 1200-1280 CE] (De animalibus, Book 23, 62; 23, 113): [Book 23, 62] Kyrii [phene or bearded vulture] is a bird of prey which displays great indulgence toward its young and feeds not only its own chicks but even young eaglets that have been ejected from their nest because the eagle was tired of feeding them. [Book 23, 112] Vulture is well known as a very large, but heavy bird. It is barely able to lift itself off the ground after taking three or more running leaps. Because of this ungainly propulsion, it is often captured before it has a chance to take to the air. I myself have caught a vulture in this fashion, though I admit the bird was encumbered by a large meal of carrion it had previously consumed. Because of its ponderous nature the vulture usually elects to take its rest on the ground rather than perching on a tree, except when it fears danger. Its clumsiness prompted the ancients to call it “gradipes” (slowfooted). This bird hunts from mid-day to nighttime, but rests during the morning until noon. Once off the ground, it can fly well, even to great heights. For this reason some claim the name “vultur” is derived from the verb “volando” (flying), but others favor a derivation from the phrase “voluntate cupida” (greedy desire), a quality the vulture undoubtedly displays. When flying high in the sky, the vulture has a remarkably far-reaching range of vision. More than that, equipped with a powerful sense of smell, it can detect over vast distances the scent of fresh meat and cadavers. Pliny and some other authors contend that no one has ever seen the nests of vultures at first hand, and from this they infer the birds come from the oposite side of the earth. The error of this conclusion is amply demonstrated by evidence from our own country. In the mountains that lie between the city of the Vangiones, now called Worms, and Treves, vultures build their nests every year. In fact, the entire countryside reeks from the stench of dead bodies borne there by the vultures. The claim that certain vultures do not engage on coitus is altogether false because their matings have been observed time and time again in this region. - [Scanlan]

Hildegard von Bingen [1098-1179 CE] (Physica, Book 6.7): The vulture is of a cold nature, and it knows the skills of both birds and beasts. It is a prophet among birds. It flies to such an altitude as to that which much of earth’s humor ascends, that is, to the heat of the air. It does no harm to other birds, but warns them, lest they be harmed by another. It eats dead bodies and sometimes forages in earth which is suffused with blood of animals, that is, where animals were killed. - [Throop translation]

Bartholomaeus Anglicus [13th century CE] (Liber de proprietatibus rerum, Book12.35): The Vulture hath the name of slowe flight, as Isidore sayth. For of the plenteousnesse of much flesh, hée lacketh swiftnesse of flight. And some men tell, that her treding is not medled, but yt she conceiveth, and is conceived, and gendereth, and is gendered without joyning of treading: and they tell, that they live an hundred yéeres, as Isidore sayth. This Birde is cruell about his owne Birdes, as the Kite is. And if shée séeth her birdes too fatte, shée beateth them with her féete and bill to make them leane by sore beating and biting, as Plinius saith. Also he sayth, that in this Birde the wit of smelling is best. And therefore by smelling he savoureth carrions that bée farre from him that is beyonde the sea: and againeward Therefore the Vulture followeth the hoast [army] that hée maye féed himselfe with carrions of men, and of horse. And therefore (as a Divinour sayth) when many Vulturs come and flie together, it betokeneth battaile. And they know that such a battaile shall bée, by some privie wit of kinde. And Aristotle speaketh of the Vulture and saith, that he fighteth with the gentle Falwcon, and slyeth about him, and when hée hath overcome him, he dieth. He eateth rawe flesh: and therefore he fighteth against other Foules because of meate, and hée hunteth from middaye to night: and resteth still from the Sunne rising to that time. And when hée ageth, his over bill waxeth long and crooked over the nether, and dyeth at the last for hunger, as Aristotle sayth there. And some men saye, by errour of olde time, that the Vulture was sometime a man, and was cruell to some Pilgrimes; and therefore hée hath such paine of his bill, and dieth for hunger, but that is not lawfull to beléeve. And so he saith, when he of his meat leaveth reliefe, hée leaveth not that other foules, as the Eagle doth, but layeth it in his neast to féede with his birds: for he getteth not ligthly meate: and theyr neasts be on high mountaines, & in thick woodes. And if he séeth any fowle flye about his birdes, he beateth them away: and féedeth his birds till they may flye: & then he driveth them out of the neast, and suffreth them not to come nigh that place. Also in lib. de Almacar, he sayth, that ther is a manner water foule that dreadeth the Vulture, and therefore flyeth to the water: and the Vulture flyeth about farre from thence, and is sharpe of sight, and waiseth when the foule commeth out of the water: & then he taketh that foule if he may. Also the Vulture is a much stinking foule and uncleane, and his flesh is most hard and of evill savour, and of heavye smell. And therefore it is not profitable for mans meate: For carrion he lighteth lyghtly to the ground. But when he is alighted, unneth he riseth againe from the ground, as Gregory sayth. Hée flyeth high, and séeth carrions that bée full lowe: and for love of carrion he commeth downe from the high country of the aire, to the grounde, as he sayth. And when any beast setteth upon him he beateth his wings against the winde: and so he, riseth from the ground: and flyeth into the aire more by helpe of the winde then by his owne strength. And héereto lib. 29. ca. 3. Plinius saith, that among foules the Vulture is contrary to serpents. For if his fethers be burnt, the smell thereof driveth awaye Serpents. And the heart thereof maketh a man siker, and safe that brareth it among Serpents and wilde beastes. His heart bound in a Lions skinne, or in a Wolfes skin driveth away féends. His fethers bounde to the lefte foote of a woman, that travaileth with childe, delivereth her swiftly. But then it must be taken away lightlye, least the entrayles followe and come out after, Ointment made of Vultures grease, and oile that is called Oleum myrti, & Waxe, helpeth sinewes, & beasts also. His right foot bound to the left foote, healeth that aketh; the left foote also healeth the right foote. His tongue plucked out with yron, & hanged about a mans necke in new cloth, maketh a man gracious, to get of a man what he desireth. So it is sayde, his boanes burnt to ashes, and medled with Celidonia, and given to beastes, healeth theyr evills. Huc usque Plinius, cap. 36. He saith that bloud of Vultures, with the hearbe yt is called Cabeon, or els Cameleonte, and Celdra, healeth the Leper. - [Batman]

Slavic Physiologus [15th - 16th century]: The vulture is full of deceit. He is ravenous and huge, more so than any other creature. Such is his nature: he fasts for forty days if he finds no food. When he finds it again, he eats up as much as he would need for forty [days], and so he makes up for a forty[-day] fast. ... The vulture sits in a fixed spot, on a stone, staring at the north wind. When carrion appears anywhere, his right foot's claws are tinged with the animal's blood, so he makes out that there is carrion [and] soars up. That is why he is called vulture, because from the earth he soars into the sky,2 and another mark appears in front of him, as a big star. A feather on his head moves ahead of him and brings him to the carrion. Likewise, the female vulture, when the day to give birth approaches, she sits in the nest and cannot bring forth. The vulture goes to a land. There is a deep abyss there. And [he] enters the abyss, gets a stone from the depths and takes it to the nest. Then the female vulture drops. Afterwards, the vulture carries the stone back. - [Stoykova, English translation by Mladenova and Stoykov]